Instagram

===Satisfaction with appearance===

===Satisfaction with appearance===

Sherlock & Wagstaff 2019 showed that both the number of followers and followees show a small positive relationship with trait anxiety.<ref name=”Sherlock & Wagstaff 2019″/> Instagram users report higher body surveillance,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Rachel |last2=Newton-John |first2=Toby |last3=Slater |first3=Amy |title=The relationship between Facebook and Instagram appearance-focused activities and body image concerns in young women |journal=Body Image |date=1 December 2017 |volume=23 |pages=183–187 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.002 |pmid=29055773 |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/33581/1/Cohen%20Newton-John%20Slater%20accepted%20at%20Body%20Image%20031017.pdf }}</ref> appearance related pressure,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Åberg |first1=Erica |last2=Koivula |first2=Aki |last3=Kukkonen |first3=Iida |title=A feminine burden of perfection? Appearance-related pressures on social networking sites |journal=Telematics and Informatics |date=March 2020 |volume=46 |pages=101319 |doi=10.1016/j.tele.2019.101319 |s2cid=210865168 }}</ref> eating pathology<ref name=”Fardouly et al 2020″>{{cite journal |last1=Fardouly |first1=Jasmine |last2=Magson |first2=Natasha R. |last3=Rapee |first3=Ronald M. |last4=Johnco |first4=Carly J. |last5=Oar |first5=Ella L. |title=The use of social media by Australian preadolescents and its links with mental health |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |date=July 2020 |volume=76 |issue=7 |pages=1304–1326 |doi=10.1002/jclp.22936 |pmid=32003901 |s2cid=210985031 }}</ref> and lower body satisfaction<ref name=”Fardouly et al 2020″/> than non-users.<ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/> Multiple studies have shown that users who take more selfies (before posting) and strategically present themselves on Instagram, for example by editing or manipulating selfies, report higher levels of body surveillance, body dissatisfaction, and lower body esteem.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Leanne |last2=Li |first2=Pengxiang |last3=Loh |first3=Renae Sze Ming |last4=Chua |first4=Trudy Hui Hui |title=A study of Singapore adolescent girls’ selfie practices, peer appearance comparisons, and body esteem on Instagram |journal=Body Image |date=June 2019 |volume=29 |pages=90–99 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.005 |pmid=30884385 |s2cid=83460239 }}</ref><ref name=”Lamp et al 2019″/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Charles |last2=Aguirre |first2=Ester |last3=Sumner |first3=Erin M. |title=The relationship between Instagram selfies and body image in young adult women |journal=First Monday |date=18 August 2016 |doi=10.5210/fm.v21i9.6390 |url=https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/hct_faculty/23 }}</ref><ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/> Tiggemann et al 2020 also confirmed this through experimental study, finding that taking and editing selfies led to higher facial dissatisfaction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tiggemann |first1=Marika |last2=Anderberg |first2=Isabella |last3=Brown |first3=Zoe |title=Uploading your best self: Selfie editing and body dissatisfaction |journal=Body Image |date=June 2020 |volume=33 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.03.002 |pmid=32224447 |s2cid=214732170 }}</ref><ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/>

Sherlock & Wagstaff 2019 showed that both the number of followers and followees show a small positive relationship with trait anxiety.<ref name=”Sherlock & Wagstaff 2019″/> Instagram users report higher body surveillance,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Rachel |last2=Newton-John |first2=Toby |last3=Slater |first3=Amy |title=The relationship between Facebook and Instagram appearance-focused activities and body image concerns in young women |journal=Body Image |date=1 December 2017 |volume=23 |pages=183–187 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.002 |pmid=29055773 |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/33581/1/Cohen%20Newton-John%20Slater%20accepted%20at%20Body%20Image%20031017.pdf }}</ref> appearance related pressure,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Åberg |first1=Erica |last2=Koivula |first2=Aki |last3=Kukkonen |first3=Iida |title=A feminine burden of perfection? Appearance-related pressures on social networking sites |journal=Telematics and Informatics |date=March 2020 |volume=46 |pages=101319 |doi=10.1016/j.tele.2019.101319 |s2cid=210865168 }}</ref> eating pathology<ref name=”Fardouly et al 2020″>{{cite journal |last1=Fardouly |first1=Jasmine |last2=Magson |first2=Natasha R. |last3=Rapee |first3=Ronald M. |last4=Johnco |first4=Carly J. |last5=Oar |first5=Ella L. |title=The use of social media by Australian preadolescents and its links with mental health |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |date=July 2020 |volume=76 |issue=7 |pages=1304–1326 |doi=10.1002/jclp.22936 |pmid=32003901 |s2cid=210985031 }}</ref> and lower body satisfaction<ref name=”Fardouly et al 2020″/> than non-users.<ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/> Multiple studies have shown that users who take more selfies (before posting) and strategically present themselves on Instagram, for example by editing or manipulating selfies, report higher levels of body surveillance, body dissatisfaction, and lower body esteem.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Leanne |last2=Li |first2=Pengxiang |last3=Loh |first3=Renae Sze Ming |last4=Chua |first4=Trudy Hui Hui |title=A study of Singapore adolescent girls’ selfie practices, peer appearance comparisons, and body esteem on Instagram |journal=Body Image |date=June 2019 |volume=29 |pages=90–99 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.005 |pmid=30884385 |s2cid=83460239 }}</ref><ref name=”Lamp et al 2019″/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Charles |last2=Aguirre |first2=Ester |last3=Sumner |first3=Erin M. |title=The relationship between Instagram selfies and body image in young adult women |journal=First Monday |date=18 August 2016 |doi=10.5210/fm.v21i9.6390 |url=https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/hct_faculty/23 }}</ref><ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/> Tiggemann et al 2020 also confirmed this through experimental study, finding that taking and editing selfies led to higher facial dissatisfaction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tiggemann |first1=Marika |last2=Anderberg |first2=Isabella |last3=Brown |first3=Zoe |title=Uploading your best self: Selfie editing and body dissatisfaction |journal=Body Image |date=June 2020 |volume=33 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.03.002 |pmid=32224447 |s2cid=214732170 }}</ref><ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/>

Cohen et al 2017 found that appearance-focused social network site use was related to body image concerns in young women. Following appearance-focused accounts on Instagram was associated with thin-ideal internalisation, body surveillance, and drive for thinness, whereas following appearance-neutral accounts was not associated with any body image outcomes.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.002</ref> Brown & Tiggemann 2016 concluded that exposure to attractive celebrity and peer images can be detrimental to women’s body image.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.007</ref> Kleemans & Daalmans 2016 conducted an experiment in which 144 girls (14–18 years old) were randomly exposed to either original or manipulated (retouched and reshaped) Instagram selfies. Results showed that exposure to manipulated Instagram photos directly led to lower body image. Especially, girls with higher social comparison tendencies were negatively affected by exposure to the manipulated photos. Interestingly, the manipulated photos were rated more positively than the original photos. Although the use of filters and effects was detected, reshaping of the bodies was not noticed very well. Girls in both conditions reported finding the pictures realistic. Results of this study implied that the recent societal concern about the effects of manipulated photos in social media might be justified, especially for adolescent girls with a higher social comparison tendency.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392</ref> Tiggemann & Barbato 2018 found that exposure to appearance comments led to greater body dissatisfaction than exposure to place comments. There was no significant effect on state self-objectification, but trait self-objectification predicted increase in body dissatisfaction regardless of experimental condition. It was concluded that comments form an important and integral part of Instagram imagery, one that has implications for body image in its own right.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.009</ref> Chatzopoulou et al 2020 found that Instagram community members use positive and negative reinforcements to strengthen body internalization. The body transformation effort motivates low-engagement male Instagram users to engage more, which has various effects on wellbeing: on one side, they feel anxious and in competition with other peers which often leads to muscle dysmorphia symptoms; on the other side, they feel more masculine with higher self-confidence, they have higher motivation to stay fit and to eat healthily.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1111/joca.12329</ref>

===Loneliness===

===Loneliness===

===Life satisfaction===

===Life satisfaction===

Fioravanti et al 2020 showed that women who had to take a break from Instagram for seven days reported higher life satisfaction compared to women who continued their habitual pattern of Instagram use. The effects seemed to be specific for women, where no significant differences were observed for men.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fioravanti |first1=Giulia |last2=Prostamo |first2=Alfonso |last3=Casale |first3=Silvia |title=Taking a Short Break from Instagram: The Effects on Subjective Well-Being |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |date=1 February 2020 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=107–112 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2019.0400 |pmid=31851833 |s2cid=209416899 }}</ref>

Fioravanti et al 2020 showed that women who had to take a break from Instagram for seven days reported higher life satisfaction compared to women who continued their habitual pattern of Instagram use. The effects seemed to be specific for women, where no significant differences were observed for men.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fioravanti |first1=Giulia |last2=Prostamo |first2=Alfonso |last3=Casale |first3=Silvia |title=Taking a Short Break from Instagram: The Effects on Subjective Well-Being |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |date=1 February 2020 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=107–112 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2019.0400 |pmid=31851833 |s2cid=209416899 }}</ref>

===Narcissism===

Jin & Ryu 2018 revealed a dynamic relationships among users’ narcissism, self-discrepancy, self-confidence, intrasexual competition for mates, need to belong, need for popularity, loneliness, number of selfie/groupie posts on Instagram, and number of Instagram followers/followings.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2018.1474881</ref>

===Alcohol and drug use===

===Alcohol and drug use===

===Eating disorders===

===Eating disorders===

A comparison of Instagram users with non-users showed that boys with an Instagram account differ from boys without an account in terms of over-evaluation of their shape and weight, skipping meals, and levels of reported disordered eating cognitions. Girls with an Instagram account also differed from girls without an account in terms of skipping meals. However, none of the other associations that were reported for boys were observed for girls. Instead, girls with an Instagram account differed from girls without an account in that they used a stricter exercise schedule. This suggests a possible differential effect of Instagram membership on body (dis)satisfaction and disordered eating for boys and girls.<ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilksch |first1=Simon M. |last2=O’Shea |first2=Anne |last3=Ho |first3=Pheobe |last4=Byrne |first4=Sue |last5=Wade |first5=Tracey D. |title=The relationship between social media use and disordered eating in young adolescents |journal=International Journal of Eating Disorders |date=January 2020 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=96–106 |doi=10.1002/eat.23198 |pmid=31797420 |s2cid=208622404 }}</ref> Regarding the relationship between time spent on Instagram and body image and/or disordered eating, several body-related constructs were consistently linked to indicators of Instagram use. More specifically, several studies identified a small positive relationship between time spent on Instagram and both internalization of beauty ideals or muscular ideals, and self-objectification across studies.<ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fardouly |first1=Jasmine |last2=Willburger |first2=Brydie K |last3=Vartanian |first3=Lenny R |title=Instagram use and young women’s body image concerns and self-objectification: Testing mediational pathways |journal=New Media & Society |date=April 2018 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=1380–1395 |doi=10.1177/1461444817694499 |s2cid=4953527 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatt |first1=Scott J |last2=Fardouly |first2=Jasmine |last3=Rapee |first3=Ronald M |title=#malefitspo: Links between viewing fitspiration posts, muscular-ideal internalisation, appearance comparisons, body satisfaction, and exercise motivation in men |journal=New Media & Society |date=June 2019 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1311–1325 |doi=10.1177/1461444818821064 |s2cid=150108093 }}</ref><ref name=”Feltman & Szymanski 2018″>{{cite journal |last1=Feltman |first1=Chandra E. |last2=Szymanski |first2=Dawn M. |title=Instagram Use and Self-Objectification: The Roles of Internalization, Comparison, Appearance Commentary, and Feminism |journal=Sex Roles |date=March 2018 |volume=78 |issue=5–6 |pages=311–324 |doi=10.1007/s11199-017-0796-1 |s2cid=115139326 }}</ref> A positive link has been pointed out between the intensity of Instagram use and both body surveillance and dietary behaviors or disordered eating.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Appel |first1=Helmut |last2=Gerlach |first2=Alexander L |last3=Crusius |first3=Jan |title=The interplay between Facebook use, social comparison, envy, and depression |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |date=June 2016 |volume=9 |pages=44–49 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.006 |url=http://psyarxiv.com/9eszw/ }}</ref><ref name=”Feltman & Szymanski 2018″/>

A comparison of Instagram users with non-users showed that boys with an Instagram account differ from boys without an account in terms of over-evaluation of their shape and weight, skipping meals, and levels of reported disordered eating cognitions. Girls with an Instagram account also differed from girls without an account in terms of skipping meals. However, none of the other associations that were reported for boys were observed for girls. Instead, girls with an Instagram account differed from girls without an account in that they used a stricter exercise schedule. This suggests a possible differential effect of Instagram membership on body (dis)satisfaction and disordered eating for boys and girls.<ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilksch |first1=Simon M. |last2=O’Shea |first2=Anne |last3=Ho |first3=Pheobe |last4=Byrne |first4=Sue |last5=Wade |first5=Tracey D. |title=The relationship between social media use and disordered eating in young adolescents |journal=International Journal of Eating Disorders |date=January 2020 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=96–106 |doi=10.1002/eat.23198 |pmid=31797420 |s2cid=208622404 }}</ref> Regarding the relationship between time spent on Instagram and body image and/or disordered eating, several body-related constructs were consistently linked to indicators of Instagram use. More specifically, several studies identified a small positive relationship between time spent on Instagram and both internalization of beauty ideals or muscular ideals, and self-objectification across studies.<ref name=”Faelens et al 2021″/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fardouly |first1=Jasmine |last2=Willburger |first2=Brydie K |last3=Vartanian |first3=Lenny R |title=Instagram use and young women’s body image concerns and self-objectification: Testing mediational pathways |journal=New Media & Society |date=April 2018 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=1380–1395 |doi=10.1177/1461444817694499 |s2cid=4953527 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fatt |first1=Scott J |last2=Fardouly |first2=Jasmine |last3=Rapee |first3=Ronald M |title=#malefitspo: Links between viewing fitspiration posts, muscular-ideal internalisation, appearance comparisons, body satisfaction, and exercise motivation in men |journal=New Media & Society |date=June 2019 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1311–1325 |doi=10.1177/1461444818821064 |s2cid=150108093 }}</ref><ref name=”Feltman & Szymanski 2018″>{{cite journal |last1=Feltman |first1=Chandra E. |last2=Szymanski |first2=Dawn M. |title=Instagram Use and Self-Objectification: The Roles of Internalization, Comparison, Appearance Commentary, and Feminism |journal=Sex Roles |date=March 2018 |volume=78 |issue=5–6 |pages=311–324 |doi=10.1007/s11199-017-0796-1 |s2cid=115139326 }}</ref> A positive link has been pointed out between the intensity of Instagram use and both body surveillance and dietary behaviors or disordered eating.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Appel |first1=Helmut |last2=Gerlach |first2=Alexander L |last3=Crusius |first3=Jan |title=The interplay between Facebook use, social comparison, envy, and depression |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |date=June 2016 |volume=9 |pages=44–49 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.006 |url=http://psyarxiv.com/9eszw/ }}</ref><ref name=”Feltman & Szymanski 2018″/>

===Intrasexual competitiveness===

Hendrickse et al 2016 observed that Instagram photo-based activities positively predicted both drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction through the mediating variable of appearance-related comparisons. These results suggest that Instagram use could be potentially harmful to individuals who find themselves frequently engaging in comparisons with others. Additionally, utilizing the intrasexual competition framework, the second aim of this study was to determine whether individual differences in competitiveness for mates influenced individual tendencies to engage in appearance-related comparisons on Instagram. A significant positive relationship emerged between intrasexual competitiveness for mates and appearance-related comparisons on Instagram.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.027</ref>

===Suicide and self-harm===

===Suicide and self-harm===